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| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Name the three states of matter. | solid, liquid, and gas |
| What is another phrase for the states of matter. | the phases of matter |
| State the physical properties of solids. |
• fixed shape, • fixed volume, and • cannot be compressed |
| State the physical properties of liquids. |
• take the shape of their container, • fixed volume, and • cannot be compressed |
| State the physical properties of gases. |
• have no fixed shape, • no fixed volume, • are easy to compress |
| What does the particle theory describe? | it describes • the movement of particles, and • the average distance between particles |
| How is a solid described using the particle theory? | particles are • close together, • in a fixed position and • vibrate constantly in this position |
| How is a liquid described using the particle theory? | particles are • close to each other, • constantly change their position by • moving freely but slowly passed and over each other |
| How is a gas described using the particle theory? | particles are • far apart, • are in constant motion, and • move freely at high speeds |
| What is pressure? | pressure is the result of gas particles colliding against the walls of the container |
| What makes the particles of a gas move faster? | heating the gas so an increase in temperature |
| What happens to pressure when a gas is heated and why? | particles move faster and collide with the walls more often so pressure increases |
| Name the point when a solid turns into a liquid. | the melting point |
| What is the difference in temperature between when a solid turns to liquid, and a liquid turns to solid? | none, they are the same value |
| What is the term for a liquid turning to a solid? | freezing |
| What is the impact of temperature on the motion of particles in a solid? | they vibrate faster when temperature increases |
| What is happening in a solid to the particles when it begins to change to a liquid? | the vibrations are so strong that the particles begin to break free from their fixed positions |
| Name the point where a liquid turns into a gas. | the boiling point |
| What is the term for a gas turning into a liquid? | condensation |
| What is the effect on the particles of a liquid of increasing temperature? | they move faster and faster as temperature increases |
| What is the term for particles escaping from a liquid before it reaches its boiling point? | evaporation |
| Why does evaporation happen? | because some particles gain enough energy to break free from the liquid and become a gas |
| How do physical and chemical changes differ? | no new substances are formed with physical changes while with chemical changes result in new substances |
| Why do substances have different boiling points? | the forces between particles vary in strength in different substances |
| How do the forces between particles in a solid affect boiling point? | the stronger the forces between particles, the higher the boiling point |
| What happens to the temperature of a solid when it is heated? | the temperature of the solid rises |
| What happens to temperature of a solid when it starts to melt? | the temperature remains constant until the solid has completely melted and then starts to rise again |
| Why does the temperature of a melting solid remain constant while it melts? | the energy provided by heating is used to break the bonds between the particles of the solid |
| What happens to the temperature of a liquid when it is heated? | the temperature of the liquid rises |
| Why does the temperature of a boiling liquid remain constant until all the liquid has boiled away? | the energy provided by heating is used to break the bonds between the particles of the liquid |
| What happens to temperature of a liquid when it starts to boil? | the temperature remains constant until the liquid has completely turned into a gas |
| Sketch a graph of temperature against time when heating a substance from solid to gas |
|
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is a substance? | a general term for a kind of matter with uniform properties |
| What is a mixture? | two or more substances combined that can be separated by physical means |
| Give an example of a mixture. | sugar disolved in tea |
| What is an element? | a substance made up of one type of atom i.e. all the atoms have the same number of protons |
| What is a molecule? | two or more atoms chemically combined |
| What is a compound? | two or more elements chemically combined |
| What group are the noble gases? | group 0 |
| Why are the atoms of the noble gases stable and unreactive? | because of the arrangement of their electrons |
| What happens when atoms or molecules react? | they change their electronic structure to make it a stable arrangement |
| What three types of bonding exist? | metallic, covalent and ionic bonding |
| What is covalent bonding? | bonds created by sharing electrons |
| What is ionic bonding? | bonds created by transferring electrons |
| What is an ion? | an atom or molecule that has gained or lost electrons to carry a charge |
| What electronic structure do ions seek to have? | the nearest noble gas |
| What electronic structure does a sodium atom have? | a sodium atom has (2,8,1) |
| What noble gas is closest to sodium? | neon |
| What is the electronic structure of neon? | a neon atom has (2,8) |
| What noble gas electronic structure does a sodium ion have? | a sodium atom with an electronic structure of (2,8,1) loses one electron so that it has the electronic structure of neon (2,8) |
| What is the difference between a neon atom and a sodium ion? | a sodium ion has one more proton than a neon atom |
| What is the same between a neon atom and a sodium ion? | a sodium ion and a neon atom have the same electronic structure of (2,8) |
| What is the charge on a sodium ion? | a single positive charge |
| Why is the charge on a sodium ion 1+? | sodium has one mpre proton than electron |
| What is the formula for a sodium ion? | Na+ |
| What ions do non-metals form when reacting with metals? | negative ions |
| Why do non-metals form negative ions? | to achieve the electronic structure of the nearest noble gas |
| How do non-metals form negative ions? | by gaining electrons |
| What group is chlorine in? | group 7 |
| What is the electronic structure of chlorine? | (2,8,7) |
| What is the noble gas nearest to chlorine? | Argon |
| What is the electronic struture of argon? | (2,8,8) |
| What does chlorine do to get the same electronic structure as argon? | it gains an electron |
| What is the electronic structure of argon? | (2,8,8) |
| What is the electronic structure of a chlorine ion? | (2,8,8) |
| What is the formula for the chlorine ion? | Cl- |
| Why does the chlorine ion have a 1- charge? | Cl- has one more electron than proton |
| What does a chlorine ion have in common with an argon atom? | both have the same electronic structure of (2,8,8) |
| How does a chlorine ion differ from an argon atom? | an argon atom has one more proton than a chlorine ion |
| Do metals lose or gain electrons? | they tend to lose electrons |
| Draw the dot-cross diagram for sodium. | sodium is Na11 (2, 8, 1)
|
| What happens to sodium when it forms an ion? | it loses an electron and becomes a 1+ ion |
| Draw the dot-cross diagram for sodium. | sodium ion is Na+ (2, 8)
|
| Draw the dot-cross diagram for chlorine. | chlorine is Cl17 (2, 8, 7)
|
| What happens to chlorine when it forms an ion? | it gains an electron and becomes a 1- ion |
| Draw the dot-cross diagram for the chlorine ion. | chlorine ion is Cl+ (2, 8, 8)
|
| What is the correct name for a chlorine ion? | a chloride ion |
| When sodium reacts with chlorine what happens in terms of electrons? | sodium (group I metal) loses one electron and chlorine (group VII) gains one electron |
| What is the electrostatic attraction between the sodium and chlorine ions called? | ionic bonding |
| Draw the dot cross diagram for sodium chloride |
|
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What types are ions exist? | positive and negative ions |
| Which elements usually form positive ions? | the metals |
| Which elements usually form negative ions? | the non-metals |
| Which elements form ionic compounds? | usually a metal and a non-metal such as NaCl where Na is a metal and Cl is a non-metal |
| What keeps the ions in ionic compounds together? | the oppositely charged ions attract each other strongly |
| What are the forces between negative and positive charges called? | electrostatic forces |
| Are electrostatic forces strong or weak? | electrostatic forces are incredibly strong |
| What is ionic bonding? | the strong electrostatic forces of attraction holding oppositely charged ions together are ionic bonding |
| What direction do electrostatic forces operate in? | in all directions |
| What structure does ionic bonding result in? | the ions are arranged in a giant structure or giant lattice |
| Describe the forces in an ionice lattice. |
• the attractive electrostatic forces act in all directions • the attractive electrostatic forces are very strong • it holds the ions in the giant lattice together very tightly |
| What do group 1 metals have in common in terms of their electronic structure? | they all have 1 electron in their outer shell |
| What ions do group 1 metals form? | they all form 1+ ions |
| Why do group 1 elements form 1+ ions? | because they lose 1 electron to obtain a stable electronic structure |
| How many electrons do group 7 electrons have in their outer shell? | they all have 7 electrons in their outer shells |
| What ions do group 7 non-metals form? | they all form 1- ions |
| Why do group 7 elements form 1- ions? | because they gain 1 electron to obtain a stable electronic structure |
| How do group numbers relate to the number electrons in the outer shell of elements? | the number of electrons in the outer shell matches the group number so • group 1 elements have 1 electron • group 2 elements have 2 electrons • group 3 elements have 3 electrons • group 4 elements have 4 electrons • group 5 elements have 5 electrons • group 6 elements have 6 electrons • group 7 elements have 7 electrons • group 8 elements have 8 electrons |
| How do group numbers relate to the charges on ions of elements? | the charge matches the number of electrons lost or gained to form an ion • group 1 ions have a 1+ charge • group 2 ions have a 2+ charge • group 3 ions have a 3+ charge • group 4 elements never form ions except tin Sn and lead Pb • group 5 ions have a 3- charge • group 6 ions have a 2- charge • group 7 ions have a 1- charge • group 8 elements never form ions in compounds |
| What electronic structure do atoms try to form when they form an ion? | the electronic structure of the closest noble gas |
| What is the electronic structure of magnesium Mg? | Mg (2, 8, 2) |
| What is the electronic structure of the magnesium ion Mg2+? | Mg2+ (2, 8) |
| What does magnesium do to form the magnesium ion Mg2+? | it loses the 2 electrons in its outer shell |
| What is the electronic structure of oxygen O? | O (2, 6) |
| What is the electronic structure of the oxygen ion O2-? | O2- (2, 8) |
| What does oxygen do to form the oxygen ion O2-? | it gains 2 electrons to add to its outer shell making a total of 8 electrons in the outer shell |
| What happens to form the ionic compound MgO? |
• magnesium loses 2 electrons to oxygen • magnesium forms Mg2+ • oxygen forms O2- • the charges on each ion hold them together to form MgO |
| What is the electronic structure of calcium? | Ca (2, 8, 8, 2) |
| What ion does calcium form? | Ca2+ |
| What is the electronic configuration of Ca2+? | Ca2+ (2, 8, 8) |
| What is the electronic structure of chlorine? | Cl (2, 7) |
| What ion does chlorine form? | Cl1- |
| What is the electronic configuration of Cl1-? | Cl1- (2, 8) |
| What happens to form the ionic compound CaCl2? |
• calcium loses 2 electrons to form Ca2+ • chlorine gains 1 electron to form Cl1- • this leaves an extra electron • so a second chlorine atom gains the extra 1 electron to form another Cl1- • the three ions are drawn together by their charges to form CaCl2 • every calcium atom bonds to two chlorine atoms so the electrons lost by calcium are the same number as those gained by the chlorines |
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Describe the forces in an ionice lattice. |
• the attractive electrostatic forces act in all directions • the attractive electrostatic forces are very strong • it holds the ions in the giant lattice together very tightly |
| Are the bonds in an ionic lattice easy to break? | no, it takes a lot of energy to break the many ionic bonds in a giant ionic lattice |
| Why do ionic substances have high melting points? | because the ionic bonds in the lattice are strong and require a lot of energy to break them |
| Why do ionic substances have high boiling points? | because the ionic bonds in the lattice are strong and require a lot of energy to break them |
| What happens when enough energy is supplied to melt an ionic substance? | the ions separate from the lattice and move freely around in the liquid |
| What do the ions in a molten ionic solid do when electrodes are inserted into the liquid? | they are attracted to oppositely charged electrodes |
| Do solid ionic substances conduct electricity? | no |
| Why do solid ionic substances not conduct electricity? | the ions with their charges cannot move around as they are fixed in position in the lattice |
| Do molten ionic substances conduct electricity? | yes |
| Why do molten ionic substances conduct electricity? | the ions with their charges are free to move around in the molten liquid |
| Do ionic compounds dissolve in water? | many but not all ionic compounds dissolve in water |
| What happens when an ionic compound is disolved in water? | the ionic bonds are broken by the water molecules and the ions move around freely |
| What do the ions do when an ionic compound is dissolved and electrodes are placed in the solution? | the ions move to oppositely charged electrodes as they are free to move around in the solution |
| Do solutions of ionic compounds conduct electricity? | yes |
| Why can solutions of ionic compounds conduct electricity? | because the ions in the solution are free to move |
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What type of bonding results when metals and non-metals combine? | ionic bonding |
| What type of bonding results when non-metals bond with non-metals? | covalent bonding |
| What is covalent bonding? | the sharing of electrons |
| Why do non-metals form covalent bonds when they bond together? | non-metals tend to gain electrons to achieve a stable outer shell but when non-metals bond with each other, they cannot both lose electrons so they share electrons |
| What holds the atoms together in covalent molecules? | their shared pairs of electrons |
| Write the formula for hydrogen gas. | H2 |
| Using dot-cross diagrams, draw the formation of a hydrogen molecule, H2 |
|
| Write the formula for oxygen gas. | O2 |
| Using a dot-cross diagram, draw the formation of a oxygen molecule, O2 |
|
| Write the formula for water. | H2O |
| Using a dot-cross diagram, draw a water molecule, H2O |
|
| Write the formula for nitrogen gas. | N2 |
| What is the formula for ammonia? | NH3 |
| What is the formula for methane? | CH4 |
| What are the 3 ways of representing bonding in covalent molecules? | showing the outer shells the outer electrons in a dot cross diagram the number of covalent bonds |
| Draw all 3 representations of ammonia. |
|
| Draw all 3 representations of ammonia. |
|
| What two forms do covalent molecules take? | small molecules and giant structures |
| What is a giant covalent structure? | huge numbers of atoms held together by a network of covalent bonds |
| What is another name for giant covalent structures? | macromolecules |
| Name a substance that is a giant covalent structure. | diamond |
| Describe the structure of diamond. |
• each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds • each bond bonds to another carbon • this produces a rigid giant lattice |
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Name five models used to represent molecules. |
• dot and cross • ball and stick • 2D diagrams • 3D diagrams • displayed formula |
| What is the limitation of a 2D ball and stick diagram? | it does not show the true shape of the molecule it shows the H-C-H angles as 90° whereas they are 109.5° 
|
| How can the true shape of a molecule be shown? | using a 3D model using a molecular model kit |
| WWhat does a dot and cross diagram show? | it shows which atom the electrons in a bond come from |
| How do electrons in a covalent bond behave? | the electrons in a covalent bond are constantly moving but are on average found most of the time between the two nuclei of the atoms that they are bonding |
| What can models be used to illustrate with giant structures? | they can indicate the chemical formula of a compound by the simplest ratio of the atoms or ions of their giant structures |
| What can models NOT be used to illustrate with giant structures? | they cannot accurately reflect the many millions of particles (atoms or ions) bonded together in giant structures |
| How strong are covalent bonds? | covalent bonds are very strong |
| What type of bond is a covalent bond? | an intra-molecular bond |
| What is the effect of covalent bonds being strong? | the atoms in a covalent molecule are held very tightly together |
| Are there forces between molecules? | yes |
| What is the type of bond or forces called between molecules? | an intermolecular force |
| How strong are intermolecular forces? | very weak by comparison to intramolecular bonds |
| What is the effect of increasing molecule size on intermolecular forces? | intermolecular forces increase with the size of molecules |
| Name two effects of increasing intermolecular forces | higher melting and boiling points |
| Why are polymers solid at room temperature? | polymers are large molecules so have relatively strong intermolecular forces which makes them solids at room temperature |
| Why are the melting and boiling points of substances made up of simple molecules low? | because they are small molecules and thus have weak intermolecular forces |
| What are polymers made of? | they are made up of many small reactive molecules that bond to each other to form long chains |
| What is polythene made from? | it is made from thousands of ethene molecules reacted to form a long chain |
| Draw the structural formula of polythene |
|
| Draw the simplified structural formula of polythene |
|
| When do ionic substances conduct electricity? | when they are liquids or in solution |
| Why do ionic substances conduct electricity? | because they contain charged particles called ions |
| Do simple covalent compounds conduct electricity as liquids? | no, they do not |
| Why don't simple covalent compounds not conduct electricity as liquids? | the molecules of simple covalent compounds have no overall charge |
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What elements does diamond contain? | only Carbon |
| What element does pencil lead contain? | only Carbon |
| Name the hardest known natural substance. | diamond |
| Can people make diamonds? | yes, they are known as artificial diamonds |
| How are artificial diamonds made? | by putting carbon under extremely high pressure and temperature |
| Name a use of artificial diamonds. | embedded in the drills used by oil companies to drill through rock to get to oil |
| What is the structure of diamond? | a giant covalent structure |
| Describe a giant covalent structure. | they are made of huge networks of atoms held together by covalent bonds |
| Name three giant covalent structures. | diamond, graphite, silica |
| What is the chemical formula of silica? | silicon dioxide |
| State the properties of giant covalent structures. |
• high melting points • high boiling points • insoluble in water • hard (graphite is an exception) • do not conduct electricity |
| What is the boiling point of diamond? | 4827 °C |
| Describe the chemical structure of diamond? | each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms by covalent bonds, arranged in a perfectly symmetrical giant lattice |
| Name two forms of Carbon. | diamond and graphite |
| Describe the structure of graphite. |
• each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms • the bonds between carbon atoms are covalent bonds • bonded carbon atoms form hexagons • bonded carbon atoms form layers • there are no covalent bonds between layers • there are weak intermolecular forces between the layers • the layers can slide over each other |
| How many bonds does Carbon form in graphite? | three strong covalent bonds |
| How many electrons does Carbon have in its outer shell for bonding? | four |
| What happens to the four outer shell electrons in carbon? | three are involved in strong covalent bonds and one is left to move free in graphite |
| What is the free electron in graphite known as? | a delocalised electron |
| What is meant by a delocalise electron? | an electron that does not belong to any one specific atom and is free to move within a structure |
| What do the delocalised electrons in graphite do? | they move freely along the layers |
| Does graphite conduct electricity? | yes |
| Why does graphite conduct electricity? | it contains delocalised electrons that are able to move along the layers |
| Why does diamond not conduct electricity? | it does not contain any delocalised electrons as all the outer shell electrons are involved in strong covalent bonds |
| Does Carbon conduct heat? | when in the form of graphite, carbon conducts heat, but in the form of diamond, carbon does not conduct heat |
| How does graphite conduct heat? | the delocalised electrons carry heat along the layers |
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Apart from diamond and graphite, what other form does carbon come in? | fullerenes |
| What structures do fullerenes exist as? | large cage-like structures and tubes |
| How many carbon atoms in the first fullerene made? | 60 carbon atoms |
| What were the differences between the carbon atoms in fullerene? | none - all atoms were equivalent with no atoms at the end |
| How did Professor Kroto suggest this structure was possible? | a structure of hexagons or pentagons arranged in a sphere |
| What shapes are possible with fullerenes? | spheres, rugby balls, doughnuts, spheres within spheres, cones, and tubes |
| How are carbon atoms arranged in fullerenes? | hexagonal (6) rings (as in graphite), pentagonal (5) rings, heptagonal (7) rings |
| What are cylindrical fullerenes called? | carbon nanotubes |
| What are the relative dimensions of nanotubes? | they are incredibly thin cylinders whose length is much greater than their diameter |
| What are the properties of nanotubes? |
• high tensile strength • high electrical conductivity • high thermal conductivity |
| Name a use of fullerenes based on their high tensile strength. | used in reinforcing composite materials such as those used in making tennis rackets |
| Why do fullerenes conduct electricity? | their bonding is the same as graphite with delocalised electrons |
| Why do fullerenes have high thermal conductivity? | they have delocalised electrons |
| Why are fullerenes used in electronics? | because of their high electrical conductivity |
| Name proposed uses for fullerenes. |
• "bucky-mules" to deliver drugs or radioactive atoms to very specific sites in the body to treat cancer • lubricants and catalysts because of the large surface area to volume ratio |
| What is graphene? | a single layer of Carbon atoms from graphite |
| Describe graphene. |
• a 2D material • the thinnest material ever made • a layer of hexagonal rings of carbon atoms |
| State the properties of graphene. |
• an excellent condutor of electricity • an excellent conductor of thermal energy • very low denisty • the most reactive form of carbon • incredibly strong for the mass |
| Name a possible use for graphene. | a flexible electronic display |
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